APPENDIX 4

WRITING A SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE

 

When organize manuscript, the first thing to consider is that the order of sections will be very different than the order of items on checklist.

An article begins with the Title, Abstract and Keywords.

The article text follows the IMRAD format, which responds to the questions below:

• Introduction: What did you/others do? Why did you do it?
• Methods: How did you do it?
• Results: What did you find?
• Discussion: What does it all mean?

The main text is followed by the Conclusion, Acknowledgements, References and Supporting Materials.

While this is the published structure, however, we often use a different order when writing.

Steps to organizing your manuscript

Length Title: Short and informative Abstract: 1 paragraph (<250 words) Introduction: 1.5-2 pages Methods: 2-3 pages Results: 6-8 pages Discussion: 4-6 pages Conclusion: 1 paragraph Figures: 6-8 (one per page) Tables: 1-3 (one per page) References: 20-50 papers (2-4 pages)

Context Prepare the figures and tables. Write the Methods. Write up the Results. Write the Discussion. Finalize the Results and Discussion before writing the introduction. This is because, if the discussion is insufficient, how can you objectively demonstrate the scientific significance of your work in the introduction? Write a clear Conclusion. Write a compelling introduction. Write the Abstract. Compose a concise and descriptive Title. Select Keywords for indexing. 10. Write the Acknowledgements. 11. Write up the References.

 

There are two important things that will set the groundwork for the entire process.

• The topic to be studied should be the first issue to be solved. Define your hypothesis and objectives (These will go in the Introduction.)
• Review the literature related to the topic and select some papers (about 30) that can be cited in your paper (These will be listed in the References.)

 

Step 1: Prepare the figures and tables

Remember that "a figure is worth a thousand words." Hence, illustrations, including figures and tables, are the most efficient way to present your results. Your data are the driving force of the paper, so your illustrations are critical!

1.Whatever your choice is, no illustrations should duplicate the information described elsewhere in the manuscript.

2.When presenting your tables and figures, appearances count! To this end:

• Avoid crowded plots, using only three or four data sets per figure; use well-selected scales.
• Think about appropriate axis label size
• Include clear symbols and data sets that are easy to distinguish.
• Never include long boring tables (e.g., chemical compositions of emulsion systems or lists of species and abundances). You can include them as supplementary material.

3. In photographs and figures, use color only when necessary when submitting to a print publication. If different line styles can clarify the meaning, never use colors or other thrilling effects or you will be charged with expensive fees. Of course, this does not apply to online journals. For many journals, you can submit duplicate figures: one in color for the online version of the journal and pdfs, and another in black and white for the hardcopy journal

4. Misuse of lines and histograms. Lines joining data only can be used when presenting time series or consecutive samples data (e.g., in a transect from coast to offshore in. However, when there is no connection between samples or there is not a gradient, you must use histograms.

 

Step 2: Write the Methods

This section responds to the question of how the problem was studied. If your paper is proposing a new method, you need to include detailed information so a knowledgeable reader can reproduce the experiment.

However, do not repeat the details of established methods; use References and Supporting Materials to indicate the previously published procedures. Broad summaries or key references are sufficient.

Present proper control experiments and statistics used, again to make the experiment of investigation repeatable.

List the methods in the same order they will appear in the Results section, in the logical order in which you did the research:

1. Description of the site
2. Description of the surveys or experiments done, giving information on dates, etc.
3. Description of the laboratory methods, including separation or treatment of samples, analytical methods, following the order of waters, sediments and biomonitors. If you have worked with different biodiversity components start from the simplest (i.e. microbes) to the more complex (i.e. mammals)
4. Description of the statistical methods used (including confidence levels, etc.)

In this section, avoid adding comments, results, and discussion, which is a common error.

 

Step 3: Write up the Results

This section responds to the question "What have you found?" Hence, only representative results from your research should be presented. The results should be essential for discussion.

Statistical rules

• Indicate the statistical tests used with all relevant parameters: e.g., mean and standard deviation (SD): 44% (±3); median and interpercentile range:  7 years (4.5 to 9.5 years).
• Use mean and standard deviation to report normally distributed data.
• Use median and interpercentile range to report skewed data.
• For numbers, use two significant digits unless more precision is necessary (2.08, not 2.07856444).
• Never use percentages for very small samples e.g., "one out of two" should not be replaced by 50%.

An important issue is that you must not include references in this section; you are presenting your results, so you cannot refer to others here. If you refer to others, is because you are discussing your results, and this must be included in the Discussion section.

 

Step 4: Write the Discussion

Here you must respond to what the results mean. Probably it is the easiest section to write, but the hardest section to get right. This is because it is the most important section of your article. Here you get the chance to sell your data. Take into account that a huge numbers of manuscripts are rejected because the Discussion is weak.

You need to make the Discussion corresponding to the Results, but do not reiterate the results. Here you need to compare the published results by your colleagues with yours (using some of the references included in the Introduction). Never ignore work in disagreement with yours, in turn, you must confront it and convince the reader that you are correct or better.

Take into account the following tips:

1. Avoid statements that go beyond what the results can support.

2. Avoid unspecific expressions such as "higher temperature", "at a lower rate", "highly significant". Quantitative descriptions are always preferred (35ºC, 0.5%, p<0.001, respectively).

3. Avoid sudden introduction of new terms or ideas; you must present everything in the introduction, to be confronted with your results here.

4. Speculations on possible interpretations are allowed, but these should be rooted in fact, rather than imagination. To achieve good interpretations think about:

• How do these results relate to the original question or objectives outlined in the Introduction section?
• Do the data support your hypothesis?
• Are your results consistent with what other investigators have reported?
• Discuss weaknesses and discrepancies. If your results were unexpected, try to explain why
• Is there another way to interpret your results?
• What further research would be necessary to answer the questions raised by your results?
• Explain what is new without exaggerating

 

 Step 5: Write a clear Conclusion

A common error in this section is repeating the abstract, or just listing experimental results. Trivial statements of your results are unacceptable in this section.

Provide a clear scientific justification for your work in this section, and indicate uses and extensions if appropriate. Moreover, suggest future experiments and point out those that are underway.

Propose present global and specific conclusions, in relation to the objectives included in the introduction.

Step 6: Write a compelling Introduction

A good introduction answer the following questions:

• What is the problem to be solved?
• Are there any existing solutions?
• Which is the best?
• What is its main limitation?
• What do you hope to achieve?

Introduce the main scientific publications on which your work is based, citing a couple of original and important works, including recent review articles.

Here are some additional tips for the introduction:

• Never use more words than necessary (be concise and to-the-point). Long introductions put readers off.
• Give the whole picture at first.
• The introduction must be organized from the global to the particular point of view, guiding the readers to your objectives when writing this paper.
• State the purpose of the paper and research strategy adopted to answer the question, but do not mix introduction with results, discussion and conclusion. Always keep them separate to ensure that the manuscript flows logically from one section to the next.
• Hypothesis and objectives must be clearly remarked at the end of the introduction.
• Expressions such as "novel," "first time," "first ever," and "paradigm-changing" are not preferred. Use them sparingly.

Step 7: Write the Abstract

Make it interesting and easily understood without reading the whole article.  Avoid using jargon, uncommon abbreviations and references. Be accurate, using the words that convey the precise meaning of your research. The abstract provides a short description of the perspective and purpose of your paper. It gives key results but minimizes experimental details. It is very important to remind that the abstract offers a short description of the interpretation/conclusion in the last sentence.

However, the abstracts must be keep as brief as possible. Just check the 'Guide for authors' of the journal, but normally they have less than 250 words.

In an abstract, the two “whats” are essential. Here's an example from an:

1. What has been done? "In recent years, several benthic biotic indices have been proposed to be used as ecological indicators in estuarine and coastal waters. One such indicator, the AMBI (AZTI Marine Biotic Index), was designed to establish the ecological quality of European coasts. The AMBI has been used also for the determination of the ecological quality status within the context of the European Water Framework Directive. In this contribution, 38 different applications including six new case studies (hypoxia processes, sand extraction, oil platform impacts, engineering works, dredging and fish aquaculture) are presented."
2. What are the main findings? "The results show the response of the benthic communities to different disturbance sources in a simple way. Those communities act as ecological indicators of the 'health' of the system, indicating clearly the gradient associated with the disturbance."

 

Step 8: Compose a concise and descriptive title

The title must explain what the paper is broadly about. It is the first (and probably only) opportunity to attract the reader's attention.

Here you can see some examples of original titles, and how they were changed after reviews and comments to them:

 

Example 1

Original title: Preliminary observations on the effect of salinity on benthic community distribution within a estuarine system, in the North Sea

Revised title: Effect of salinity on benthic distribution within the Scheldt estuary (North Sea)

Comments: Long title distracts readers. Remove all redundancies such as "studies on," "the nature of," etc. Never use expressions such as "preliminary." Be precise.

 

Example 2

Original title: Action of antibiotics on bacteria

Revised title: Inhibition of growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by streptomycin

Comments: Titles should be specific. Think about "how will I search for this piece of information" when you design the title.

 

Example 3

Original title: Fabrication of carbon/CdS coaxial nanofibers displaying optical and electrical properties via electrospinning carbon

Revised title: Electrospinning of carbon/CdS coaxial nanofibers with optical and electrical properties

Comments: "English needs help. The title is nonsense. All materials have properties of all varieties.  You could examine my hair for its electrical and optical properties! You MUST be specific. I haven't read the paper but I suspect there is something special about these properties, otherwise why would you be reporting them?" – the Editor-in-Chief.

Try to avoid this kind of response!

 

Step 9: Select keywords for indexing

Keywords are used for indexing your paper. They are the label of your manuscript. However, when looking for keywords, avoid words with a broad meaning and words already included in the title.

Some journals require that the keywords are not those from the journal name, because it is implicit that the topic is that. For example, the journal Soil Biology & Biochemistry requires that the word "soil" not be selected as a keyword.

Only abbreviations firmly established in the field are eligible (e.g., TOC, CTD), avoiding those which are not broadly used (e.g., EBA, MMI).

Again, check the Guide for Authors and look at the number of keywords admitted, label, definitions, thesaurus, range, and other special requests.

 

Step 10: Write the Acknowledgements

Here, you can thank people who have contributed to the manuscript but not to the extent where that would justify authorship. For example, here you can include technical help and assistance with writing and proofreading.

 

Step 11: Write up the References

In the text, cite all the scientific publications on which your work is based. But do not over-inflate the manuscript with too many references. Avoid excessive self-citations and excessive citations of publications from the same region.

Minimize personal communications, do not include unpublished observations, manuscripts submitted but not yet accepted for publication, publications that are not peer reviewed.

When citing research in languages other than English, be aware of the possibility that not everyone in the review process will speak the language of the cited paper and that it may be helpful to find a translation where possible.

Make the reference list and the in-text citation conform strictly to the style given in the Guide for Authors. Remember that presentation of the references in the correct format is the responsibility of the author, not the editor.