1.THE PURPOSES OF ACADEMIC WRITING
1.1.The most common reasons for writing:
- to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted
- to answer a question the writer has been given or chosen
- to discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer’s view to synthesize research done by others on a topic
1.2.Common types of academic writing
- Notes
- Reports
- Projects
- Essays
- Dissertations/Thesis
- Papers
1.3.The most common written sources
- Textbooks
- Websites
- Journal articles
- Official reports (e.g. from government)
- Newspaper or magazine articles
- e-books
1.4.The most common requirements to your academic text
- your should give reasons for your initial hypothesis
- you should obtain more well-rounded data
- you should show the logic of your experiments
- you should present clear, consistent logical argument to somebody else involved in the research of this field.
The objective of this paper is to present a comprehensive study of the effects of ball burnishing on the low cycle fatigue endurance of cylindrical specimens subjected to alternative bending stress, by constructing fatigue S-N curves to evaluate the impact of the process on the general fatigue behavior of AISI 1038. The specimens were burnished through five different force-number of passes couples, displacing the as-machined-material S-N curve towards higher lifespans as the degree of cold work is increased, either by effect of a higher force and more burnishing passes. The derived surface hardening effect also proved to be correlated analytically with the fatigue lifespan increase at all tested maximum-stress levels, as prove the correlation of the parameters that represent the potential equation associated to the Wöhler model with the hardening effect. It is concluded that the process performed with 120 N and 7 passes results in the most favorable results, represented by a 41% increase of hardness and a 77% increase in the lifespan in the best of cases.
1. What is a piece of research the writer has conducted?
2. Did the writer give an answer to a question that he/she has been given or chosen?
3. Was it a subject of common interest?
4.Did the writer manage to synthesize research done by others on a topic?
5. What the difference between textbooks, websites, journal articles, official reports, newspaper or magazine articles, e-books?
6. What are the most common requirements to an academic text?
2.WRITING A PARAGRAPH
A paragraph- a group of related sentences that discuss mainly one idea. It
- can be long enough;
- the number of sentences is unimportant;
- visually organized
2.1.Three parts of a paragraph:
- The topic sentence - states the main idea of the paragraph
- names the topic
- limits the topic to one specific area
- The controlling idea - announces the specific area
- Supporting Sentences - develop the topic sentence;
- explain or prove the topic sentence;
- give more information
- Concluding sentence - signals the end of the paragraph;
- summarizes the paragraph. with important points to remember.( It can do this in two ways: by summarizing the main points of the paragraph or by repeating the topic sentence in different words)
- is needed only for stand-alone paragraph.
1). A good topic sentence:
a) is a complete sentence with a subject, a verb, and a controlling idea;
b) states the main idea of the paragraph
c) is neither too general nor too specific;
d) the controlling idea limits the topic to one specific area that can be discussed.
e) is usually the first sentence in the paragraph
f) the helpful guide to both: the Writer and the Reader
2. Good supporting sentences :
a) develop the topic sentence (explain or prove the topic sentence by giving more information about it).
b) are specific and factual
c) can be examples, statistics, or quotations
3. A good concluding sentence:
a) signals the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with important points to remember.
b) summarizes the important points briefly or restates the topic sentence in different
3 . LINKING PARAGRAPHS TOGETHER
Each new paragraph begins with a phrase that links it to the previous paragraph, in order to maintain continuity of argument:
- Despite this (i.e. the lack of a conclusive link)
- All these claims (i.e. arguments in favour of the previous idea)
- In order to begin a new topic you may use:
- Turning to the issue of . . .
- Some (points,elements,arguments…)must also be examined . . .
- . . . is another area for consideration
- Paragraphs can also be introduced with adverbs:
- Traditionally, few examples were . . .
- Finally, the performance of . . .
The following expressions make up links and connectors accounting for
a). Conjuncting
b). Adjuncting
c). Correlating
d). Opposing
e). Orientating
f). Coordinating
g). Determining
ahead, against, in order to, though, regardless, unless, concerning, notwithstanding; but, if, hence, since, rather than, namely, that is, above/ after all, aside, besides, according to, consequently, furthermore, according/ due to, because, nevertheless, regarding, respectively, with, without away, as well, counter, whether, only, versus, next, now, vice versa, otherwise, whereas, aside, back, backward, behind, neither, against, between, here, to trans-, under, up, upon, via, where, within, therefore, which,despite,after, still, while, as yet , such, with respect to, each, other, the same, something, what, , whose, why, thereby.
Task1.Put these phrases under a corresponding title:
a)…
b)…
c)…
d)…
e)…
f)…
g)…
Task 2.Analyze the text and say what linking phrases are used to maintain continuity of argument.
Stress-strain curves for two kinds of test specimens are presented as csv files in a public data repository on Mendeley Data [3]. The csv files in the repository are labeled with the specimen type, temperature of the test, lot, and specimen number within the lot.
The two types of test specimens used are shown in Fig. 1, Fig. 2. Fig. 3 shows the stress state in the plane strain test specimen obtained from finite element analysis. Fig. 4, Fig. 5, Fig. 6 show the test setup, specimen attachment to the loading machine, and speckle pattern used to facilitate digital image correlation respectively. Fig. 7, Fig. 8 show the gauge section used for strain measurements. Fig. 9 shows the distribution of stress across the cross section of the plane strain specimen, from finite element analysis. Table 1 shows the number of specimens from each lot tested at each temperature. Table 2 shows the available data about chemical composition of the material from the lots.
IV.WRITING AN ESSAY
1. Some steps that should be taken into consideration while preparing an essay
- Brainstorming
- Organizing
- Drafting
- Reviewing
- Revising
- Publishing
2.Choosing a topic
The topic must:
- not be too broad
- not be too narrow
- be interesting and important
- be something that you know about
- be researchable
- have a point.
3. Writing a thesis statement in an essay
A thesis statement for an essay functions like the topic sentence of a paragraph; it tells the reader the main idea of the essay. However, while a topic sentence of a paragraph is often the first sentence, the thesis statement of an essay is usually the final sentence of the introduction.
V.WRITING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION
An effective introduction explains the purpose and scope of the paper to the reader. The conclusion should provide a clear answer to any question asked in the title, as well as summarizing the main points.
1. A common framework in an introduction
In an introduction much depends on the type of research a person is conducting, but a common framework is:
a. Definition of key terms, if needed.
b. Relevant background information.
c. Review of work by other writers on the topic.
d. Purpose or aim of the paper.
e. Your methods and the results you found.
f. Any limitations you imposed.
g The organization of your work.
Task 1. Agree or disagree with the following statements which are considered to be parts of introduction:
- Background information or explanation
- An interesting story or event
- Some surprising information (a hook- a sentence or two to catch the reader’s attention)
- A quotation or saying
- An unusual fact or some surprising statistic
- The beginning of a story
- A question (tricky to use affectively)
2.Parts of conclusion
- summary of the main points of the essay
- no new arguments or important information
- the arguments (made in the body of the essay) can be logically extended by making recommendation or prediction
- it’s not a novel; there are no surprising endings
- the best thing is if the conclusion can be tied back to introduction (hard to write)
- summary of the main points of the essay
- no new arguments or important information
- the arguments (made in the body of the essay) can be logically extended by making recommendation or prediction
- it’s not a novel; there are no surprising endings
- the best thing is if the conclusion can be tied back to introduction
VI.COMMUNICATING IN SCIENTIFIC ENVITRONMENT.
1.Describing texts (articles, scientific papers, studies, reviews, etc)
1.1.Setting a goal
...The chief/general aim...
...central/ key/ ultimate goal...
...main/ particular purpose...
...major/ primary task of this paper/ study is …
...one of the main/ principal objectives is…
1.2.Describing the subject
The subject (matter) of this paper/ study/ analysis/ research/ discussion is …
The present paper/ investigation/article
… goes (inquires) into…
… focuses on…
… deals with…
... is devoted to the questions (problems/ issues) of …
. .. undertakes to survey/ identify the structure of
... considers what factors/ processes influence …
… the concluding/ final sections/ comments/ remarks concern/ focus on… ... In this article/ section the authors aim to determine…
... attempt to explain the mechanisms of…
... are intended to give/ show/ develop/ provide/ record
... examine the nature/ characteristics/ features/ functions of …
... (will) concentrate on/ argue that/ review
1.3.Sounding personal
I want to point to/ review/ introduce...
I can/ shall/ should provide …
I must emphasize that…
I must say a few words about …
I should/ would like to illustrate/ suggest/ posit/ stress that
I find it necessary to consider …/ to turn our attention to …
1.4.Going further:
One further remark…
Two further points …
Further questions…
A further aim of the paper…
The only step needed (here) is …
The issue that ought to be raised here concerns…
The second point I want to describe here has to do with…
This latter point requires justification.
1.5.Supplying evidence:
To lend support to our hypothesis…
To base our position…
This issue can serve as a basis for …
This matter can form a background for a judgment about …
This point requires justification/ should be examined in detail/ with
accuracy.
This question requires (further) remark/ comment/ explanation.
This problem presupposes deep study/ minute analysis/ understanding of …
This method should be precisely/ clearly/ accurately/ explicitly/ rigidly defined.
This approach can be extensively/ properly/ reasonably applied to…
This topic should be studied/ investigated closely/ carefully/ thoroughly.
1.6.References
According to…
Following…
I will refer to…
This result was obtained by…
Such problems are fully discussed by .. in …
The following passage from… illustrates that…
This aspect has (not) received attention (criticism/ scientific support) in the literature.
References should be made to…
1.7.Positive comments:
This article/book/discussion/study
...is an accurate/ comprehensive/ convincing analysis of …
...is an instructive/ minute/ profound/ thorough description of…
...is a good snapshot of functional analysis…
...supports the theory of…
...sheds new light on …
...allows a principled decision on …
...sounds attractive…
...proved to be successful…
...deals with the complex subject in an orderly manner…
...shows very convincingly, that …
...presents a wealth of data about…
...managed to answer the question with simplicity.
This approach
...is quite/ highly creative/ effective/ fruitful/
...is more flexible than…
...is the best
... is perfect / valuable for …
...has aroused wide interest
...has been the stimulus for analytic discussion
...opens prospects for further study of…
...casts (a new) light on the question
...gives convincing (direct/ exact/ good/ plausible/ serious/ sound/ strong/ sufficient/valid) reason to think that...
...gives rise to theoretical discussion
...is elaborated/ explained in detail.
1.8.Criticism and objections:
The study done by…
...is still under discussion
...does not allow us to answer the question whether…
...leaves many questions open.
The solution offered by .. has been criticized at length.
The approach/ strategy
...neglects (ignores)…
...has a number of disadvantages
...is not accurately formulated
...is a hot topic in debates
..draws sharp criticism
Objections can be raised...
There are a number of objections that can be raised...
There are counter-examples…
The negative side of the approach/ method…
1.9.Personal negative remarks:
I t seems (a bit) artificial
It seems unlikely that … .
It is nonsensical / an error to regard …
It is doubtful / I doubt that…
I am unsure whether …
I am afraid / not sure/ I am not convinced that…
I am skeptical / critical / suspicious of …
1.10.Exemplification of the problem:
This example can serve as an illustration to….
This procedure may be illustrated by …
Two sample cases (simple examples,) will help demonstrate …
Here I shall give examples which show that …
To illustrate the point (further), we may take / consider another example…
The following examples may serve as illustrations…
This point can be easily exemplified.
The point will be clearer if we consider another type of example.
2.Speech patterns and rhetorical devices
2.1.Intensification
Task 1: Translate these words into Russian.
absolutely, actually, adequately, broadly, completely, considerably, constantly, effectively, entirely, equally, essentially, especially, extremely, exactly, far, fully, fundamentally, inevitably, highly, immediately, greatly, keenly, largely, manifestly, markedly, naturally, necessarily, particularly, peculiarly, perfectly, primarily, purely, radically, significantly, specially, specifically strongly; totally, truly; ultimately, uniquely.
Task 2: Make up your own sentences with these words.
Task 3: Translate these sentences, pay special attention to intensifiers.
a) It seems highly probable that the situation might change.
b) This approach is highly complex (controversial) and can’t be accepted at present.
c) This problem is still left largely unaddressed (unexplored), though one can find a lot of references to it.
d) This theory …
... largely ignores mathematical....
...was greeted with a storm of criticism.
... strongly affects/ depends on/ influences / indicates that ...
... is completely comprehensive/ typical/ irrelevant/ unacceptable.
... is particularly useful.
... is particularly informative.
... is perfectly acceptable/ (formal/ functional).
... should not be taken as purely negative.
... is totally clear-cut/ self-sufficient.
... provides totally naturalistic explanation.
This method
...really entails/ needs/ relates to/ involves
...indicates how…
... can really be fruitful.
We cannot really understand the nature of this phenomenon.
e) I am not really in a position to speak about this method.
f) This technology will be a step to truly green economics.
g) Investigators can now see how electrons truly interact with one another.
h) This concept should be adequately and explicitly defined.
2.2. De-intensification:
Task 4: Translate these words into Russian.
barely, basically, commonly, customarily, fairly, hardly, merely, mainly, nearly, normally, possibly, practice rather, slightly, somehow, virtually, weakly, typically, usually.
Task 5: Read and translate the following sentences.
a) Such studies have barely begun.
b) The approach developed has a fairly specific meaning.
c) The method used is hardly acceptable (necessary/ ever used).
d) This method gives merely probable results.
e) This notion/ definition is rather vague (controversial).
f) This constitutes a rather interesting case.
g) This is simply irrelevant.
h) This gas is somehow leaking into the air.
i) This distinction is slightly artificial (different/ odd).
j) This is a slightly odd form of presentation.
k) They are only weakly dependent.
l) This research is basically descriptive/ comparative.
m) I am basically in disagreement with this view.
n) This point of view commonly accepted/ assumed/ exploited/ used. ...is more frequent than the second one.
- o) Such modifications are normally the result of implementation of new technologies.
Task 6: Make up your own sentences with these words.
2.3. Emphatic quantification:
Task 7: Translate these words into Russian.
great, more, the most, most, much, variety, various;
Task 8: Use these expressions in sentences of your own.
great interest in …/…a great deal to be done in elaborating…/...pay a great deal of attention to…/…cost. ...may be very great./...one great value of…/...pay more attention to …/...no more alternatives to…
Task 9: Read and translate the following sentences.
a) Now let's look at a more realistic example.
b) This is the most elementary information of all.
c) The most basic feature/ transparent approach/ usual pattern.
d) The most complete/ explicit account of the problem is found in …
e) Finding a new approach is the most difficult task.
f) Much depends here on …
g) This volume provides much insight into the problem.
h) There is an infinite/ huge/ wide variety of phenomena (experiments/
i) This method is used in the manufacturing of a variety of items.
j) A variety of these anomalous features can be easily explained.
k) Various models have been put forward to explain the phenomenon.
2.4 Emphatic operators:
Task 10: Find Russian equivalents of the following words.
enough, non-, none, at least, indeed, by no means, even, just, mere, only, quite, very
Task 11: Read and translate the following sentences.
a) This concept is convincing enough (to be used).
b) He fails to make a convincing enough argument for the whole group.
c) Enough has been said to prove this approach.
d) It is easy enough to show that...
e) It should be understandable to non-specialists.
f) None of the errors proved serious.
g) The proposed mechanisms are at least plausible.
h) There are at least two applications of this method.
i) At least this is the conclusion of our study.
j) It is indeed remarkable that …
k) Such artifacts are indeed distorting the picture.
l) Actual content .is by no means the end of the story.
m) Even in simple cases, such quantities are difficult to calculate.
n) Even complex models may not simulate feedback effects accurately.
- o) Even a short computer program can prove difficult to check out.
p) Recent work shows just how systematic such phenomena can be.
q) This principle is really just an extension of the notion of preference.
r) We shall adopt the scheme of just four categories.
s) It is relevant only when...
t) The only sure way of doing this is…
u) This algorithm is quite unacceptable/ appropriate/ adequate for / distinct from…
v) We can do that quite simply.
w) There is a very wide variety of
2.5 . General quantifiers
Task 12: Give Russian equivalents of the following quantifiers.
so far, any, both, alone, single, a bit, some, the same, the whole
Task 13: Make up sentences of your own to illustrate the usage of these words.
Task 14: Read the following sentences, pay special attention to emphatic quantifiers.
a) Economists do not seem to have made any progress in forecasting future economic situation.
b) They both have written extensively in this field.
c) These principles have been studied by both economists and lawyers.
d) This book should be of interest to both students and professors..
e) In the book the problem is discussed with both clarity and accuracy.
f) This theory portrays modern economic situation as both under government and market control..
g) The results that the company is going to achieve are both possible and desirable.
h) We can’t come to this conclusion from this evidence alone.
i) Mathematics alone cannot give us the base for this approach.
j) No single topic in economics generates more controversy than the one describing quality standards.
k) It seems a bit artificial to forecast future.
l) Your point of view suggests that the budget figures need some revision.
m) It was assumed that the results might be positive but some probing proved otherwise.
n) Some people's immune systems fight AIDS rather effectively.
- o) These procedures are approximately (essentially/ exactly) the same in different economic analytical schemes.
p) Both methods work in basically the same way.
q) If you follow the same rule you will get the same results.
r) This notion refers to a whole set of theories.
s) The experiments undertaken in the company changed the whole picture.
t) The company economists explore how these assumptions fit into the model as a whole.
2.6.Emphatic connectors:
Task 15. Give Russian equivalents of the following emphatic connectors
Even if/ though, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, whatever, whenever.
Task 16: Use these words in sentences of your own.
Task 17: Translate these sentences, pay special attention to emphatic connectors.
a) Karl Marks’ and Adam Smith’s theories might be compared even if they were not historically related.
b) The books written by a famous economist Porter are quite popular even if one is in disagreement with his views.
c) Even though this issue has been broadly disscused there hasn't been a unanimous
d) conclusion.
e) Modern scientists have no explanation of this phenomenon, however, they hope to find some.
f) In detail, however, we shall see that the budget figures are not so balanced.
g) However, this is what cannot be taken for granted.
h) Before looking at this matter, however,.it is worth collecting all possible data .
i) His book has a variety of virtues; I do, however, have certain criticisms.
j) This approach is the most vulnerable; nevertheless it is rather informative and convincing.
k) There is no clear way of testing these products, none the less, the company technologists are trying to find one.
l) The situation in the market is vague, it is none the less clear that positive tendencies are vivid.
m) Whatever the outcome of the research might be they hope to double the output.
n) The results of the experiment should be at hand whenever necessary.
2.7. Impersonal constructions accounting for backgrounds:
Task 18: Find Russian equivalents and make up sentences of your own with the following phrases.
It is …common knowledge (experience )
… well known/ commonplace that…
… a matter of common observation…
… generally agreed/ accepted that…
... claimed /being claimed
It is taken for granted that…
It is not entirely clear…
It is encouraging that…
It is hoped that…
It turns out/ proves to be …
It would be of great interest to …
2.8. Focusing:
Task 19: Find Russian equivalents and make up sentences of your own with the following phrases:
This ...implies/ proves/ shows/ yields/
...is meant to support our theory
...will allow me to propose…
...offers a way of
...is another way of approaching …
2.9. Commenting and demonstrating intentions:
Task 20: Find Russian equivalents and make up sentences of your own with the following phrases.
...it is important to view…
…it is particularly necessary to underline…
…it seems impossible …
…it will be shown that…
…it is easy/ (not) hard/ relatively simple to demonstrate/show/ prove/ verify that…
…it must be recognized that…
…to make a distinction between …one should…
…it may be difficult to understand …
…it can be/ is (not) easily shown/ proved…
…on further examination it was discovered that …
…to grasp this point we must…
…in order to achieve/ clarify...it is necessary to …
…to argue this, I’d like to…
... it is not sufficient to define …
2.10. Evaluating and prospecting:
Task 21: Find Russian equivalents and make up sentences of your own with the following phrases.
It is appropriate/ convenient/ desirable/ essential...
... to start with…
… to present/ to outline /to show…
It is ...fair/ fruitful/ helpful/ important/ instructive/ interesting/ logical to…
It is ...natural/ proper/ reasonable/ sensible to mention that…
It is ...safe/ suitable/ useful/ wise to introduce some terminology/definitions.
It is ...informative to turn to…
…wise to begin with …
... natural to recognize (conclude) that …
It seems …
...fair to say
...important to emphasize that…
...logical to ask whether …
It would be
...reasonable to assume that…
...safe to predict that …
It might be helpful to examine …
It is essential to make clear/ to see that …
It is (not) good (enough) to appeal to …
It is (none the less) clear that …
It became/ is (not) clear/ obvious that…
It is/ seems (quite) logical (to assume) ... that…
It is difficult/ possible to imagine that…
It is evident/ self-evident (for us)/ (un)likely/ (highly) probable that…
2.11. Choosing and stating:
Task 22: Find Russian equivalents and make up sentences of your own with the following phrases.
- It appears (seems/ may be/ is) fair/ reasonable to say that …
- It is (would be) accurate to say that…
- It goes without saying that…
- It is (not even a half) truth to say that…
- It's often easier to do … than…
- In doing ...it is better to use…
- Instead of working in terms of …it is more convenient to introduce…
- It might be less confusing to use the theory…
- In order to measure ...it is crucial to calculate…
- In conclusion, it may be said that …
2.12.Arguing by negation
Task 23: Find Russian equivalents and make up sentences of your own with the following phrases.
- It is beyond the scope of this paper
- It is not my purpose/ the purpose of this article
- It is doubtful/ seems unlikely that this theory …
- It is in principle impossible
- It would not be productive
- It is thus not surprising
- It needs no argument that…
- It is misleading/ nonsensical/ pointless/ not correct/ an error to focus only on…
- It would not be adequate to regard/ consider…
- It cannot/ can hardly be denied that..
-
2.13. Arguing by inversion:
Task 24: Find Russian equivalents and make up sentences of your own with the following phrases:
- It is here where these effects are most important.
- It is in this area of inquiry that much of the terminology originates.
- It is one of the basic principles of …
- It is exactly the case.
- It is precisely this that distinguishes…
- It is our aim to…
2.14. Parenthesis :
Task 25: Find Russian equivalents and make up sentences of your own with the following phrases:
a) connecting :
- In view of…
- From this point of view
- In a broad sense
- In this connection
- In particular
- In detail
- In this framework…
- In our current conception…
- In response to this....
- In practice, …
- With regard to, …
- In discussing/ surveying …
- From this perspective, let us re-examine…
- Methodologically/ Technically, ...this seems to be…
- In any area of science,there will be issues …
b) explaining:
- Given the notion/ limitation/ difficulty of…we can explain…
- Given the fact that…the conclusion is evident
- Given that, we can extend the interpretation оf
- With regard to…a certain clarification is necessary.
- Following … we will refer to…as …
- By exploring this paradigm,
- Admittedly, this problem is not new.
- Presumably/ That is to say,…
- Under certain/ experimental circumstances…
- In these (other) cases…
- According to the analysis given here…
- To this end,…
c) comparing and inferring:
- Accordingly/ alternatively/ equally/ equivalently/ similarly
- Likewise/ otherwise/ conversely/ consequently,
- By analogy/ contrast
- Because of this/ for this reason/ for the present,
- As compared with / in comparison with / as follows from …
- As a result (consequence)
- In this respect…
- As always…
- But/ however/ at best/ at the same time/ nevertheless/ still,
- Therefore/ hence/ so/ then/ thus/ whence/ on the contrary,
- On the one hand/ on the other hand…
- From the other side,...
- In reality/ In the latter (that/ this) case,
d) generalizing:
- Generally/ Typically/ Essentially/ Naturally/ Most important/ In general,
- On a more general level/ In a more general context,
- Typically, in other words/ As a general rule/ First of all,
- In effect/ In essence/ In a word/ In brief/ To simplify,
- In principle/ Seen as a whole
- In any case,
- To summarize the ideas…
e) succession:
- To begin with/ Next/ Again/ To repeat,…
- First(ly)/ Second(ly)/ Third(ly),…
- Ultimately/ In closing/ Finally,… .
- In short/ In summary /To summarize,…
- At this point,…
- Continuing in the same way,…
- Before looking at this matter, however, …
- Before we go into these problems,..
- As for …/ As far as … is concerned…
- Regarding …/ Apart from …/ Leaving aside…/ As matters stand,…
- To my very limited knowledge,…
- As far as we are aware,…
- In considering …
- In looking ahead and planning the work…
f) additions and appositions:
- What’s more/Further/ Furthermore/ Moreover/ Besides/ Also/ In addition to…
- Above all/ After all/ Indeed/ Actually/ Virtually/ Rather
- In these terms/ In other words,
- In fact/ That is/ Namely/ More correctly,
- In abbreviated form,……
- Roughly/ strictly speaking, ...
- In a way,…
- This means…
j) attitudes:
- Clearly/ Evidently/ Interestingly (enough)/ Fortunately/ Regrettably,
- To be sure/ Little wonder/ Surprisingly,
- Obviously/ Surely/ Understandably,
- In our opinion,
- Unfortunately,
- Regrettably,
-
2.15. Interrogating:
Task 26: Find Russian equivalents and make up sentences of your own with the following phrases:
- Can we say…?
- What does it mean to say…?
- How can we begin to understand that…?
- We can frame the question as follows:
- There are some questions…:
- There are two crucial questions here…
- The question is whether …
-
2.16. Parameters and quantity intensifiers:
Task 27: Make up your own sentences using phrases expressing parameters and quantity intensifiers:
multitude, cost, considerable, extensive, frequent, global, enormous, length, infinite, pressure, multiple, rate, size, speed, weight; measure, parameter, value, degree, extent, range, scope, numerous, voluminous, single, to cost, weigh, to measure, stabilize, underscore.
Task 28:You are going to write a brief summary of you scientific article to present it to your scientific supervisor. Ty to do your best to present it in an adequate form briefly and logically organized. Use connectors and link words as far as different speech patterns and rhetorical devices.